A welder uses tools that join two or more parts through forces such as heat or pressure. Metals are the materials most commonly used in welding, but it’s also possible to weld thermoplastics or wood. Welders use their hands, skills, and problem-solving abilities to create something new.
At NASA, welders use different types of welding processes to assemble spacecraft and rocket components. Welders also put their expertise to work on equipment and facilities that make space exploration possible, such as launch pads, fuel tanks, propellant lines, and buildings where rockets are assembled.
What are the different types of welding?
Welding can be done in many different ways. Here are some of the types of welding used at NASA:
Arc Welding: Uses electricity to melt metals and fuse them together. There are many types of arc welding, including TIG and MIG welding, described below.
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding: Uses a protective gas like argon or helium to keep the metal from reacting with air. TIG welding doesn’t leave behind splatter or residue, giving a clean, precise weld.
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding: While not as clean and precise as TIG welding, is used for fast, strong welds on thicker materials, like sheet metal.
Laser Welding: Enables welders to create tiny, perfect joints for delicate components.
Ultrasonic Welding: Uses sound and friction to create a solid-state bond between layers of metal.
A technician at Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans welds part of the Orion spacecraft that will carry astronauts to the Moon on the Artemis II mission.
NASA
How can I become a welder?
After graduating from high school, there are a couple of pathways to choose from. You can pursue an associate’s degree in welding, typically a two-year program available through community colleges and technical schools. Another option is to obtain a certificate from a vocational school or trade school. An apprenticeship during or after this training is often the next step toward a career as a professional welder.
A NASA welder working on the RS-25 engine.
NASA
How can I start preparing today to become a welder?
Taking a welding class at your high school or local college is a great way to find out whether it’s a skill you enjoy. Research welding degrees and programs at colleges and schools to determine which one(s) fit your needs and interest. It’s also a good idea to research job vacancies to learn what employers are looking for. Finally, seek out opportunities for hands-on experience to help you practice and improve your welding skills.
Michelle Bahnsen uses TIG welding techniques to join two metal sheets.
NASA
Once I tried it, I really, really enjoyed it. There’s just something about creating something with your hands. It gives you a sense of accomplishment.
Michelle Bahnsen
Research laboratory mechanic/welder at NASA’s Armstrong Test Facility, part of the agency’s Glenn Research Center
A research laboratory mechanic and welder joins two metal sheets.
NASA
Advice from other NASA welders
“Building your knowledge in math and science is always a helpful tool, as you’ll need to understand measurements, geometry, and materials.” – Spencer Wells, engineering technician, Kennedy Space Center
“One of the best ways to set yourself up as a welder is by attending a vocational school for welding, and then working in an apprentice/internship to gain work experience and training.” – Enricque Lee, tool and die apprentice, NASA’s Glenn Research Center
On Jan. 13, 2016, technicians at Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans finished welding together the primary structure of the Orion spacecraft destined for deep space on Artemis I, marking another important step on the journey to Mars.
Pictured from left: Roscosmos cosmonaut Andrey Fedyaev, NASA astronauts Jack Hathaway and Jessica Meir, and ESA (European Space Agency) astronaut Sophie Adenot. Credit: NASA
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-12 mission is preparing to launch for a long-duration science mission aboard the International Space Station. During the mission, select crew members will participate in human health studies focused on understanding how astronauts’ bodies adapt to the low-gravity environment of space, including a new study examining subtle changes in blood flow.
The experiments, led by NASA’s Human Research Program, include astronauts performing ultrasounds of their blood vessels to study altered circulation and completing simulated lunar landings to assess disorientation during gravitational transitions, among other tasks. The results will help NASA plan for extended stays in space and future exploration missions.
The new study, called Venous Flow, will examine whether time aboard the space station increases the chance of crew members developing blood clots. In weightlessness, blood and other bodily fluids can move toward the head, potentially altering circulation. Any resulting blood clots could pose serious health risks, including strokes.
“Our goal is to use this information to better understand how fluid shifts affect clotting risk, so that when astronauts go on long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars, we can build the best strategies to keep them safe,” said Dr. Jason Lytle, a physiologist at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston who is leading the study.
To learn more, crew members in this study will undergo preflight and postflight MRIs, ultrasound scans, blood draws, and blood pressure checks. During the flight, crew members also will capture their own jugular vein ultrasounds, take blood pressure readings, and draw blood samples for scientists to analyze after their return to Earth.
In another study, called Manual Piloting, select crew members will perform multiple simulated Moon landings before, during, and after the mission. Designed to assess their piloting and decision-making skills, participants attempt to fly a virtual spacecraft toward the lunar South Pole region — the same area future Artemis crews plan to explore.
“Astronauts may experience disorientation during gravitational transitions, which can make tasks like landing a spacecraft challenging,” said Dr. Scott Wood, a neuroscientist at NASA Johnson who is coordinating the investigation.
While spacecraft landings on the Moon and Mars are expected to be automated, crews must be prepared to take over and pilot the vehicle if necessary.
“This study will help us examine astronauts’ ability to operate a spacecraft after adapting from one gravity environment to another, and whether training near the end of their spaceflight can help prepare crews for landing,” said Wood. “We’ll monitor their ability to manually override, redirect, and control a vehicle, which will guide our strategy for training Artemis crews for future Moon missions.”
The risk of astronauts experiencing disorientation from gravitational transitions increases the longer they’re in space. For this study, which debuted during the agency’s SpaceX Crew-11 mission, researchers plan to recruit seven astronauts for short-term private missions lasting up to 30 days and 14 astronauts for long-duration missions lasting at least 106 days. A control group performing the same tasks as the astronauts will provide a basis of comparison.
After returning to Earth, select crew members will participate in a study that documents any injuries, such as scrapes or bruises that may occur during landing. Transitioning from weightlessness to Earth’s gravity can increase the injury risk without proper safeguards. The data will help researchers improve spacecraft design to better protect crews from landing forces.
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NASA’s Human Research Program
NASA’s Human Research Program pursues methods and technologies to support safe, productive human space travel. Through science conducted in laboratories, ground-based analogs, commercial missions, the International Space Station and Artemis missions, the program scrutinizes how spaceflight affects human bodies and behaviors. Such research drives the program’s quest to innovate ways that keep astronauts healthy and mission ready as human space exploration expands to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
Curiosity Blog, Sols 4788-4797: Welcome Back from Conjunction
NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity acquired this image using its Mast Camera (Mastcam); it shows the “Nevado Sajama” drill site from November, right next to the location of this weekend’s drill. The new drill site will be to the upper left of the existing hole. Curiosity captured the image on Jan. 25, 2026 — Sol 4789, or Martian day 4,789 of the Mars Science Laboratory mission — at 19:20:37 UTC.
NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Written by Alex Innanen, Atmospheric Scientist at York University, Toronto
Earth planning date: Friday, Jan. 30, 2026
Mars has emerged from its holiday behind the Sun, and we here on Earth have been able to reconnect with Curiosity and get back to work on Mars. Our first planning day last Friday gave Curiosity a full weekend of activities, which wrapped up with getting us ready for our next drill. We checked out a broken white rock in the workspace with APXS, MAHLI, and ChemCam’s laser spectrometer and finished up imaging a sandy area we’ve kept an eye on during conjunction to see if we could catch any wind motion, before taking a small drive to our drill location about 2 meters away (about 6 feet).
This location may look familiar — our next drill will be only a few centimeters away from “Nevado Sajama,” which we drilled back in November. The reason we’ve returned here is to do a rare SAM experiment the instrument’s last container of tetramethylammonium hydroxide (or TMAH, for less of a mouthful). TMAH is a chemical that we can mix with our sample from Nevado Sajama to help identify any organic molecules. SAM had only two containers of TMAH (the first of which we used almost six years ago, so we want to be very certain that everything will go well with this experiment. As a result, we did a rehearsal of the handoff of the sample to SAM in Wednesday’s plan, before we drill this weekend.
NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston and the University of Texas System (UT System) announced the signing of a collaborative Space Act Agreement on Jan. 9, 2026. The agreement expands research and workforce development partnership opportunities across NASA centers and UT System facilities.
NASA’s Johnson Space Center Director Vanessa Wyche and University of Texas System Chancellor John M. Zerwas, participate in a ceremonial signing of a Space Act Agreement at Johnson Space Center in Houston on Jan. 9, 2026.
NASA/Helen Arase Vargas
The agreement builds upon decades of collaboration between NASA and the UT System by enabling additional research, teaching resources, and educational engagements that support human spaceflight and grow the pipeline of next-generation talent. It will leverage Johnson’s unique capabilities as the hub of human spaceflight and the UT System’s assets across its 13 institutions.
“NASA’s Johnson Space Center has a long history of working with colleges and universities to help us achieve our human spaceflight missions,” said Johnson Center Director Vanessa Wyche. “We are eager to partner with the UT System to collaborate in vital research and technology development initiatives that will enable us to meet our nation’s exploration goals and advance the future of space exploration.”
The agreement also reflects Johnson’s continued evolution through Dare Unite Explore – a set of commitments designed to ensure the center will remain the world leader in human space exploration. Those commitments include expanding partner access to the center’s world-class facilities and expertise, as well as establishing robust workforce development and recruitment programs.
Johnson Center Director Vanessa Wyche and UT System Chancellor John Zerwas (center) stand with members of their respective leadership teams following the ceremonial agreement signing.
NASA/Helen Arase Vargas
Wyche and UT System Chancellor John M. Zerwas hosted a ceremonial signing event at Johnson. During the event, Wyche and Zerwas, along with the center’s leadership team and the UT System executives and faculty, strategized on potential partnership opportunities and next steps for stakeholders.
As a member of the Crew Operations Office, Erin Edwards and her team manage astronaut candidate training schedules, including field medical exercises, land survival, and underwater operations at NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory in Houston. She also develops and tests new training programs to keep crews mission-ready.
Along with her role as a crew operations officer, Edwards works in the International Space Station Mission Control Center as a capsule communicator, or capcom, and instructor. As a capcom, she must be fluent in the language of the spacecraft and its operations to clearly relay important information to the crew, especially during dynamic operations.
Read on to learn about Edwards’ career with NASA and more!
Erin Edwards serves as a capsule communicator, or capcom, in the International Space Station Mission Control Center in Houston.
NASA/James Blair
Where are you from?
Port Moody, British Columbia, Canada.
How long have you been working for NASA?
I’ve been at NASA for two years. My term here with the military is three years.
What was your path to NASA?
Super random! I’m a Canadian military pilot, previously working in the Canadian Special Operations Forces Command as an aircraft commander on the CH-146 Griffon. While we use a lot of space-based assets in aviation, the leap to human spaceflight was unexpected.
An opportunity for an officer to work in the astronaut office as a capcom arose a few years ago. As a lifelong space nerd, I figured it would be an amazing opportunity. I applied and was interviewed, and before long, was posted to NASA’s Johnson Space Center as the first Canadian non-astronaut to be posted as a capcom and later as an operations officer.
How would you describe your job to family or friends that may not be familiar with NASA?
My team and I organize the unassigned crew and astronaut candidates’ work lives! As a capcom, I help translate what the engineers are saying in the flight control room for the astronauts aboard the station, and I help with the station activities as call sign Houston. More recently I’ve been assigned as the TH57 Helicopter Project Pilot at AOD to help get that fleet integrated for more lunar-focused Space Flight Readiness Training.
What advice would you give to young individuals aspiring to work in the space industry or at NASA?
Just go for it! You miss 100% of the shots you don’t take, as Wayne Gretzky said. My background as a military helicopter pilot, Navy diver, and mining engineer may appear to have no relevance to NASA, but that diverse experience has turned out to be useful here as an operations officer for astronaut training. I wouldn’t have known that if I hadn’t thrown my hat in the ring. No matter your technical background, there’s probably a place for it in spaceflight. Your experience has unique ways of benefiting such complex, multifaceted programs like spaceflight—so give it a shot!
Is there a space figure you’ve looked up to or someone that inspires you?
Spaceflight isn't something we can do on our own, there are many integrated teams comprised of many different types of people all pulling together to make the impossible happen.
Erin Edwards
Deputy Branch Chief for Crew Operations and Capsule Communicator
Honestly, there isn’t a single person, but I think what NASA and my own country’s space program, like others, have committed themselves to as a giant team is what has inspired me over the years. I think I was inspired by that, the mission, and the culture of a united effort of so many to do hard things.
What is your favorite NASA memory or the most meaningful project you’ve worked on during your time with NASA?
There are two! After only a few months at NASA, I was told by my soon-to-be boss, James ‘Vegas’ Kelly, that I was selected to take over NASA astronaut Jonny Kim’s operations job. This was a huge vote of confidence for me as a new team member from Canada. The second was sending my first transmission to the station as a qualified capcom, which was incredibly cool. I am just a big nerd from a small town in Canada, and never in a million years did I think I would be at NASA at that console, so it was a little mind blowing.
Erin Edwards during diving operations at NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory in front of the Canadarm2 mock-up.
NASA/Tess Caswell
What do you love sharing about station?
Everyone is playing their part to accomplish important science and experiments that we can't do anywhere else.
Erin Edwards
Deputy Branch Chief for Crew Operations and Capsule Communicator
People always seem surprised at how big the teams are that support the station and how collaborative of an effort it is. It stretches across disciplines, centers, and even countries. That information is critical for solving problems here on Earth.
November 2, 2025, marked 25 years of continuous human presence. What does this milestone mean to you?
A quarter century of science and partnership aboard the orbital laboratory is a testament to what we can do as a global society when we really want to. To me personally, being able to be here with people who have worked in space or help train the people going next is such a full circle situation. I dreamed of working on a team like this, and it happened 20 years later. That opportunity to fulfill a dream and represent Canada as part of the ISS program means a lot to me!
If you could have dinner with any astronaut, past or present, who would it be?
I was never able to meet Sally Ride. I think I would have loved to ask her some questions and hear her story in person.
Do you have a favorite space-related memory or moment that stands out to you?
Dr. Robert Thirsk, a Canadian astronaut, spoke to my elementary school in 1996, which he had attended years earlier. I was in sixth grade, and it was a formative interaction. Hearing him talk so passionately about his shuttle mission and life with his team aboard the orbiter was absolutely lifechanging. I didn’t know how I was going to do it, but I decided then that I wanted to work in space. That set my course for life. I’ll likely never get to space, but I got pretty close, and it is really something to pursue a goal like that for so long and have it work out, almost
What are some of the key projects you have worked on during your time at NASA? What have been your favorite?
Being able to put my operational helicopter background to use in helping to build the helicopter flight program here has been a really cool and unexpected opportunity! I happened to be the right person at the right time with the right skill set to make a difference in that aspect of training. I’m proud of that.
Erin Edwards pictured in her role as a Royal Canadian Air Force helicopter pilot, where she built skills that she leverages in her work at NASA.
Canadian Armed Forces/Erin Edwards
What are your hobbies/things you enjoy doing outside of work?
I’m in my forties, but still really like playing contact rugby, which is such a fun sport. Between the tactics, teamwork, bashing into people on the pitch, and a cheeky beer after a game, it’s a great way to spend a weekend. I run a lot and, when I can, climb – any kind of climbing, sport, bouldering, trad, ice climbing. All of it!
Day launch or night launch?
Night launch!
Favorite space movie?
Apollo 13. Obviously.
NASA Worm or Meatball logo?
Meatball!
The NASA Meatball logo
NASA and its partners have supported humans continuously living and working in space since November 2000. After 25 years of continuous human presence, the space station remains a training and proving ground for the future of commercial space stations, deep space missions, enabling NASA’s Artemis campaign, lunar exploration, and future Mars missions.
Every day, we are conducting exciting research aboard our orbiting laboratory that will help us explore farther into space and bring benefits back to people on Earth. You can keep up with the latest news, videos, and pictures about space station science on the Station Research & Technology news page. It is a curated hub of space station research digital media from Johnson and other centers and space agencies.
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Follow updates on social media at @Space_Station on X, and on the space station accounts on Facebook and Instagram.
The NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC) conducted a technical assessment to evaluate alternatives to dichloromethane, traditionally used for bonding transparent polymeric materials. This effort was initiated in response to potential regulatory restrictions under the EPA Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), which could impact critical bonding processes used in spaceflight hardware and experimental systems.
This Jan. 29, 2026, photo captures the streak the Varda Space Industries W-5 capsule made while returning to Earth. The capsule uses a protective heat shield Varda produced made of cutting-edge material it licensed from NASA. The material, known as C-PICA (Conformal Phenolic Impregnated Carbon Ablator), provides a stronger, less expensive, and more efficient thermal protection coating to capsules, allowing them – and their valuable contents – to return to Earth safely.
Developed at NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley, C-PICA sets the standard for heat shields, reflecting the decades of expertise that NASA brings to designing, developing, and testing innovative thermal protection materials. This flight test of Varda-produced C-PICA was supported by NASA’s Flight Opportunities program.
Image credit: Varda Space Industries/William Godward
An animation shows glaciers in the Karakoram range of Pakistan with monthly ice-velocity measurements overlaid from January through December. On Baltoro Glacier, red areas, indicating high ice velocities, propagate slowly downslope throughout the melting season.
NASA/Chad Greene
For the first time, scientists have created a comprehensive global dataset revealing how the world’s glaciers speed up and slow down with the seasons. Published in Science in November 2025, this groundbreaking study analyzed over 36 million satellite image pairs—including decades of Landsat data—to track the seasonal “pulse” of every major glacier on Earth.
The research, built off the ITS_LIVE ice velocity dataset from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), reveals that seasonal glacier dynamics are becoming more pronounced as our planet warms, with the strongest seasonal variations occurring where annual maximum temperatures exceed freezing. Armed with this global perspective, researchers can continue to tease out patterns in glacial dynamics, identifying how factors including geology and hydrology impact seasonal melting.
Alex Gardner, a scientist at NASA JPL and a co-author on this study, explains how combining Landsat and radar data makes this research possible.
What makes this research unique from other studies of glacial dynamics?
While many past studies have investigated seasonal changes in glacier flow, they have typically focused on single glaciers or specific regions. This localization makes it difficult to extrapolate findings to the rest of the world.
This study is the first to characterize seasonal flow changes for all the world’s glaciers. By applying a consistent methodology globally, we were able to isolate the universal relationships that drive seasonal fluctuations in glacier flow.
Why did you use Landsat in this work? Did it give you any insight that would have been difficult to get otherwise?
We utilized data from Landsat 4/5/7/8/9, as well as ESA’s Sentinel 2 (optical) and Sentinel 1 (radar). Landsat offers an unmatched historical record with dense temporal sampling, particularly following the launch of Landsat 8 in 2013.
Three factors make Landsat imagery ideal for detecting “surface displacements” (the subtle pixel shifts used to estimate flow):
Near-exact repeat orbits: The satellite returns to the exact same position.
Nadir viewing: The instrument looks directly downward.
Stable instrument geometry: Distortion is minimized.
An animation shows glaciers in southeastern Alaska with monthly ice-velocity measurements overlaid from January through December. Red areas, indicating high ice velocities, begin to expand across Malaspina Glacier in spring.
NASA/Chad Greene
Why does the ITS_LIVE tool use the Landsat panchromatic band? Which bands from Landsats 4-5 are used?
We measure surface displacement using a technique called feature tracking, which tracks the movement of specific surface details between a primary and a secondary image.
This approach works best with high-resolution imagery because there are more “features” to track. Therefore, we utilize the 15m panchromatic band. For the older Landsat 4/5 data, we use Band 2 (visible red) because it provides the best contrast over bright glacier surfaces.
You used Landsat data in combination with radar data to track ice velocity. What did each of these datasets contribute?
Optical and Radar imagery are highly complementary and allow us to reconstruct a complete timeline of glacier flow:
Radar (Active Sensor): Can image the surface day or night, regardless of cloud cover, but struggles with feature tracking when the surface is melting (wet snow/ice).
Optical (Passive Sensor): Requires sunlight and clear skies, but performs significantly better than radar when the surface is melting.
How did you use radar data to validate uncertainties?
We characterized uncertainty by analyzing retrieved velocities over stationary surfaces, such as bedrock. If our data showed high variability or movement in areas we know are not moving (like rock), we knew those measurements carried a higher uncertainty.
You found that glacier dynamics vary by region and glacier type. Why is it important to understand these global differences?
A glacier’s response to external forces—such as meltwater lubricating the bedrock or changes in frontal melting—is highly dependent on local factors (e.g., the material beneath the glacier or the shape of the fjord). This makes it risky to assume that findings from one glacier apply to another.
Our study identified general patterns by observing nearly every glacier on Earth. A key finding was the relationship between temperature and flow:
Seasonal variability becomes prominent when annual maximum temperatures exceed 0°C.
The amplitude of that seasonal cycle increases with every degree of warming above that threshold.
Are there plans to incorporate Landsat 9 data into future studies? How would improvements in remote sensing technology (increased temporal revisit, spatial resolution, etc.) impact glacial velocity analyses?
We are already ingesting Landsat 9 data into the ITS_LIVE project, which is designed to scale quickly with new sensors. Future sensor improvements offer a trade-off:
Increased Spatial Resolution: Allows us to track a higher number of surface features, improving flow estimates.
Increased Temporal Frequency: Reduces data gaps caused by surface changes (loss of features), but can potentially increase error rates. This is because displacement is an accumulated signal; features move half the distance in an 8-day pair compared to a 16-day pair, making the movement harder to distinguish from background noise.
Are there any research questions you’re interested in that build off this work?
This study is just the tip of the iceberg. The dataset is rich with insights on glacier mechanics that are waiting to be uncovered. While we hope to make new discoveries in the coming years, we are equally excited to see what breakthroughs come from the wider scientific community exploring this open data.
An animation shows an ice cap in the Canadian Arctic with monthly ice-velocity measurements overlaid from January through December. Red areas, indicating high ice velocities, expand across the ice cap during the summer months.
